---
_id: '13984'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: "Social insects fight disease using their individual immune systems and the
cooperative\r\nsanitary behaviors of colony members. These social defenses are
well explored against\r\nexternally-infecting pathogens, but little is known about
defense strategies against\r\ninternally-infecting pathogens, such as viruses.
Viruses are ubiquitous and in the last decades\r\nit has become evident that also
many ant species harbor viruses. We present one of the first\r\nstudies addressing
transmission dynamics and collective disease defenses against viruses in\r\nants
on a mechanistic level. I successfully established an experimental ant host –
viral\r\npathogen system as a model for the defense strategies used by social
insects against internal\r\npathogen infections, as outlined in the third chapter.
In particular, we studied how garden ants\r\n(Lasius neglectus) defend themselves
and their colonies against the generalist insect virus\r\nCrPV (cricket paralysis
virus). We chose microinjections of virus directly into the ants’\r\nhemolymph
because it allowed us to use a defined exposure dose. Here we show that this is
a\r\ngood model system, as the virus is replicating and thus infecting the host.
The ants mount a\r\nclear individual immune response against the viral infection,
which is characterized by a\r\nspecific siRNA pattern, namely siRNAs mapping against
the viral genome with a peak of 21\r\nand 22 bp long fragments. The onset of this
immune response is consistent with the timeline\r\nof viral replication that starts
already within two days post injection. The disease manifests in\r\ndecreased
survival over a course of two to three weeks.\r\nRegarding group living, we find
that infected ants show a strong individual immune response,\r\nbut that their
course of disease is little affected by nestmate presence, as described in chapter\r\nfour.
Hence, we do not find social immunity in the context of viral infections in ants.\r\nNestmates,
however, can contract the virus. Using Drosophila S2R+ cells in culture, we\r\nshowed
that 94 % of the nestmates contract active virus within four days of social contact
to\r\nan infected individual. Virus is transmitted in low doses, thus not causing
disease\r\ntransmission within the colony. While virus can be transmitted during
short direct contacts,\r\nwe also assume transmission from deceased ants and show
that the nestmates’ immune\r\nsystem gets activated after contracting a low viral
dose. We find considerable potential for\r\nindirect transmission via the nest
space. Virus is shed to the nest, where it stays viable for one\r\nweek and is
also picked up by other ants. Apart from that, we want to underline the potential\r\nof
ant poison as antiviral agent. We determined that ant poison successfully inactivates
CrPV\r\nin vitro. However, we found no evidence for effective poison use to sanitize
the nest space.\r\nOn the other hand, local application of ant poison by oral
poison uptake, which is part of the\r\nants prophylactic behavioral repertoire,
probably contributes to keeping the gut of each\r\nindividual sanitized. We hypothesize
that oral poison uptake might be the reason why we did\r\nnot find viable virus
in the trophallactic fluid.\r\nThe fifth chapter encompasses preliminary data
on potential social immunization. However,\r\nour experiments do not confirm an
actual survival benefit for the nestmates upon pathogen\r\nchallenge under the
given experimental settings. Nevertheless, we do not want to rule out the\r\npossibility
for nestmate immunization, but rather emphasize that considering different\r\nexperimental
timelines and viral doses would provide a multitude of options for follow-up\r\nexperiments.\r\nIn
conclusion, we find that prophylactic individual behaviors, such as oral poison
uptake,\r\nmight play a role in preventing viral disease transmission. Compared
to colony defense\r\nagainst external pathogens, internal pathogen infections
require a stronger component of\r\nindividual physiological immunity than behavioral
social immunity, yet could still lead to\r\ncollective protection."
acknowledged_ssus:
- _id: LifeSc
alternative_title:
- ISTA Thesis
article_processing_charge: No
author:
- first_name: Anna
full_name: Franschitz, Anna
id: 480826C8-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Franschitz
citation:
ama: Franschitz A. Individual and social immunity against viral infections in ants.
2023. doi:10.15479/at:ista:13984
apa: Franschitz, A. (2023). Individual and social immunity against viral infections
in ants. Institute of Science and Technology Austria. https://doi.org/10.15479/at:ista:13984
chicago: Franschitz, Anna. “Individual and Social Immunity against Viral Infections
in Ants.” Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2023. https://doi.org/10.15479/at:ista:13984.
ieee: A. Franschitz, “Individual and social immunity against viral infections in
ants,” Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2023.
ista: Franschitz A. 2023. Individual and social immunity against viral infections
in ants. Institute of Science and Technology Austria.
mla: Franschitz, Anna. Individual and Social Immunity against Viral Infections
in Ants. Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2023, doi:10.15479/at:ista:13984.
short: A. Franschitz, Individual and Social Immunity against Viral Infections in
Ants, Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2023.
date_created: 2023-08-08T15:33:29Z
date_published: 2023-08-08T00:00:00Z
date_updated: 2024-03-01T15:25:17Z
day: '08'
ddc:
- '570'
- '577'
degree_awarded: PhD
department:
- _id: GradSch
- _id: SyCr
doi: 10.15479/at:ista:13984
file:
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creator: afransch
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creator: afransch
date_created: 2023-08-08T18:02:25Z
date_updated: 2023-08-09T07:25:27Z
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creator: cchlebak
date_created: 2024-03-01T08:37:15Z
date_updated: 2024-03-01T12:13:29Z
description: Minor modifications and clarifications - Feb 2024
embargo: 2024-08-08
embargo_to: open_access
file_id: '15042'
file_name: Addendum_AnnaFranschitz202402.pdf
file_size: 85956
relation: erratum
title: Addendum
- access_level: closed
checksum: 66745aa01f960f17472c024875c049ed
content_type: application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.wordprocessingml.document
creator: cchlebak
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content_type: application/pdf
creator: cchlebak
date_created: 2024-03-01T08:56:06Z
date_updated: 2024-03-01T12:58:14Z
description: For printing purposes
file_id: '15044'
file_name: Print_Version_Franschitz_Anna_Thesis.pdf
file_size: 10416761
relation: other
title: Print Version
file_date_updated: 2024-03-01T12:58:14Z
has_accepted_license: '1'
language:
- iso: eng
month: '08'
oa_version: Published Version
page: '89'
publication_identifier:
isbn:
- 978-3-99078-034-3
issn:
- 2663 - 337X
publication_status: published
publisher: Institute of Science and Technology Austria
status: public
supervisor:
- first_name: Sylvia
full_name: Cremer, Sylvia
id: 2F64EC8C-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Cremer
orcid: 0000-0002-2193-3868
title: Individual and social immunity against viral infections in ants
type: dissertation
user_id: 8b945eb4-e2f2-11eb-945a-df72226e66a9
year: '2023'
...
---
_id: '12133'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: Social distancing is an effective way to prevent the spread of disease in
societies, whereas infection elimination is a key element of organismal immunity.
Here, we discuss how the study of social insects such as ants — which form a superorganism
of unconditionally cooperative individuals and thus represent a level of organization
that is intermediate between a classical society of individuals and an organism
of cells — can help to determine common principles of disease defence across levels
of organization.
article_processing_charge: No
article_type: letter_note
author:
- first_name: Sylvia
full_name: Cremer, Sylvia
id: 2F64EC8C-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Cremer
orcid: 0000-0002-2193-3868
- first_name: Michael K
full_name: Sixt, Michael K
id: 41E9FBEA-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Sixt
orcid: 0000-0002-6620-9179
citation:
ama: Cremer S, Sixt MK. Principles of disease defence in organisms, superorganisms
and societies. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2022;22(12):713-714. doi:10.1038/s41577-022-00797-y
apa: Cremer, S., & Sixt, M. K. (2022). Principles of disease defence in organisms,
superorganisms and societies. Nature Reviews Immunology. Springer Nature.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-022-00797-y
chicago: Cremer, Sylvia, and Michael K Sixt. “Principles of Disease Defence in Organisms,
Superorganisms and Societies.” Nature Reviews Immunology. Springer Nature,
2022. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-022-00797-y.
ieee: S. Cremer and M. K. Sixt, “Principles of disease defence in organisms, superorganisms
and societies,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 22, no. 12. Springer Nature,
pp. 713–714, 2022.
ista: Cremer S, Sixt MK. 2022. Principles of disease defence in organisms, superorganisms
and societies. Nature Reviews Immunology. 22(12), 713–714.
mla: Cremer, Sylvia, and Michael K. Sixt. “Principles of Disease Defence in Organisms,
Superorganisms and Societies.” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 22, no.
12, Springer Nature, 2022, pp. 713–14, doi:10.1038/s41577-022-00797-y.
short: S. Cremer, M.K. Sixt, Nature Reviews Immunology 22 (2022) 713–714.
date_created: 2023-01-12T12:03:14Z
date_published: 2022-12-01T00:00:00Z
date_updated: 2023-08-04T08:53:32Z
day: '01'
department:
- _id: SyCr
- _id: MiSi
doi: 10.1038/s41577-022-00797-y
external_id:
isi:
- '000871836300001'
pmid:
- '36284178'
intvolume: ' 22'
isi: 1
issue: '12'
keyword:
- Energy Engineering and Power Technology
- Fuel Technology
language:
- iso: eng
month: '12'
oa_version: None
page: 713-714
pmid: 1
publication: Nature Reviews Immunology
publication_identifier:
eissn:
- 1474-1741
issn:
- 1474-1733
publication_status: published
publisher: Springer Nature
quality_controlled: '1'
scopus_import: '1'
status: public
title: Principles of disease defence in organisms, superorganisms and societies
type: journal_article
user_id: 4359f0d1-fa6c-11eb-b949-802e58b17ae8
volume: 22
year: '2022'
...
---
_id: '10284'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: Infections early in life can have enduring effects on an organism's development
and immunity. In this study, we show that this equally applies to developing ‘superorganisms’––incipient
social insect colonies. When we exposed newly mated Lasius niger ant queens to
a low pathogen dose, their colonies grew more slowly than controls before winter,
but reached similar sizes afterwards. Independent of exposure, queen hibernation
survival improved when the ratio of pupae to workers was small. Queens that reared
fewer pupae before worker emergence exhibited lower pathogen levels, indicating
that high brood rearing efforts interfere with the ability of the queen's immune
system to suppress pathogen proliferation. Early-life queen pathogen exposure
also improved the immunocompetence of her worker offspring, as demonstrated by
challenging the workers to the same pathogen a year later. Transgenerational transfer
of the queen's pathogen experience to her workforce can hence durably reduce the
disease susceptibility of the whole superorganism.
acknowledged_ssus:
- _id: ScienComp
acknowledgement: The authors are grateful to G. Tkačik and V. Mireles for advice on
data analyses and to A. Schloegl for help using the IST Austria HPC cluster for
data processing. The authors thank J. Eilenberg for providing the fungal strain
and A.V. Grasse for support with the molecular analysis. The authors also thank
the Social Immunity group at IST Austria, in particular B. Milutinović, for discussions
throughout and comments on the manuscript.
article_processing_charge: Yes (via OA deal)
article_type: original
author:
- first_name: Barbara E
full_name: Casillas Perez, Barbara E
id: 351ED2AA-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Casillas Perez
- first_name: Christopher
full_name: Pull, Christopher
id: 3C7F4840-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Pull
orcid: 0000-0003-1122-3982
- first_name: Filip
full_name: Naiser, Filip
last_name: Naiser
- first_name: Elisabeth
full_name: Naderlinger, Elisabeth
id: 31757262-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Naderlinger
- first_name: Jiri
full_name: Matas, Jiri
last_name: Matas
- first_name: Sylvia
full_name: Cremer, Sylvia
id: 2F64EC8C-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Cremer
orcid: 0000-0002-2193-3868
citation:
ama: Casillas Perez BE, Pull C, Naiser F, Naderlinger E, Matas J, Cremer S. Early
queen infection shapes developmental dynamics and induces long-term disease protection
in incipient ant colonies. Ecology Letters. 2022;25(1):89-100. doi:10.1111/ele.13907
apa: Casillas Perez, B. E., Pull, C., Naiser, F., Naderlinger, E., Matas, J., &
Cremer, S. (2022). Early queen infection shapes developmental dynamics and induces
long-term disease protection in incipient ant colonies. Ecology Letters.
Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13907
chicago: Casillas Perez, Barbara E, Christopher Pull, Filip Naiser, Elisabeth Naderlinger,
Jiri Matas, and Sylvia Cremer. “Early Queen Infection Shapes Developmental Dynamics
and Induces Long-Term Disease Protection in Incipient Ant Colonies.” Ecology
Letters. Wiley, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13907.
ieee: B. E. Casillas Perez, C. Pull, F. Naiser, E. Naderlinger, J. Matas, and S.
Cremer, “Early queen infection shapes developmental dynamics and induces long-term
disease protection in incipient ant colonies,” Ecology Letters, vol. 25,
no. 1. Wiley, pp. 89–100, 2022.
ista: Casillas Perez BE, Pull C, Naiser F, Naderlinger E, Matas J, Cremer S. 2022.
Early queen infection shapes developmental dynamics and induces long-term disease
protection in incipient ant colonies. Ecology Letters. 25(1), 89–100.
mla: Casillas Perez, Barbara E., et al. “Early Queen Infection Shapes Developmental
Dynamics and Induces Long-Term Disease Protection in Incipient Ant Colonies.”
Ecology Letters, vol. 25, no. 1, Wiley, 2022, pp. 89–100, doi:10.1111/ele.13907.
short: B.E. Casillas Perez, C. Pull, F. Naiser, E. Naderlinger, J. Matas, S. Cremer,
Ecology Letters 25 (2022) 89–100.
date_created: 2021-11-14T23:01:25Z
date_published: 2022-01-01T00:00:00Z
date_updated: 2023-08-14T11:45:29Z
day: '01'
ddc:
- '573'
department:
- _id: SyCr
doi: 10.1111/ele.13907
ec_funded: 1
external_id:
isi:
- '000713396100001'
pmid:
- '34725912'
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creator: cchlebak
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language:
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month: '01'
oa: 1
oa_version: Published Version
page: 89-100
pmid: 1
project:
- _id: 2649B4DE-B435-11E9-9278-68D0E5697425
call_identifier: H2020
grant_number: '771402'
name: Epidemics in ant societies on a chip
publication: Ecology Letters
publication_identifier:
eissn:
- 1461-0248
issn:
- 1461-023X
publication_status: published
publisher: Wiley
quality_controlled: '1'
related_material:
record:
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relation: research_data
status: public
scopus_import: '1'
status: public
title: Early queen infection shapes developmental dynamics and induces long-term disease
protection in incipient ant colonies
tmp:
image: /images/cc_by.png
legal_code_url: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode
name: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC-BY 4.0)
short: CC BY (4.0)
type: journal_article
user_id: 4359f0d1-fa6c-11eb-b949-802e58b17ae8
volume: 25
year: '2022'
...
---
_id: '10727'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: "Social insects are a common model to study disease dynamics in social animals.
Even though pathogens should thrive in social insect colonies as the hosts engage
in frequent social interactions, are closely related and live in a pathogen-rich
environment, disease outbreaks are rare. This is because social insects have evolved
mechanisms to keep pathogens at bay – and fight disease as a collective. Social
insect colonies are often viewed as “superorganisms” with division of labor between
reproductive “germ-like” queens and males and “somatic” workers, which together
form an interdependent reproductive unit that parallels a multicellular body.
Superorganisms possess a “social immune system” that comprises of collective disease
defenses performed by the workers - summarized as “social immunity”. In social
groups immunization (reduced susceptibility to a parasite upon secondary exposure
to the same parasite) can e.g. be triggered by social interactions (“social immunization”).
Social immunization can be caused by (i) asymptomatic low-level infections that
are acquired during caregiving to a contagious individual that can give an immune
boost, which can induce protection upon later encounter with the same pathogen
(active immunization) or (ii) by transfer of immune effectors between individuals
(passive immunization).\r\nIn the second chapter, I built up on a study that I
co-authored that found that low-level infections can not only be protective, but
also be costly and make the host more susceptible to detrimental superinfections
after contact to a very dissimilar pathogen. I here now tested different degrees
of phylogenetically-distant fungal strains of M. brunneum and M. robertsii in
L. neglectus and can describe the occurrence of cross-protection of social immunization
if the first and second pathogen are from the same level. Interestingly, low-level
infections only provided protection when the first strain was less virulent than
the second strain and elicited higher immune gene expression.\r\nIn the third
and fourth chapters, I expanded on the role of social immunity in sexual selection,
a so far unstudied field. I used the fungus Metarhizium robertsii and the ant
Cardiocondyla obscurior as a model, as in this species mating occurs in the presence
of workers and can be studied under laboratory conditions. Before males mate with
virgin queens in the nest they engage in fierce combat over the access to their
mating partners.\r\nFirst, I focused on male-male competition in the third chapter
and found that fighting with a contagious male is costly as it can lead to contamination
of the rival, but that workers can decrease the risk of disease contraction by
performing sanitary care.\r\nIn the fourth chapter, I studied the effect of fungal
infection on survival and mating success of sexuals (freshly emerged queens and
males) and found that worker-performed sanitary care can buffer the negative effect
that a pathogenic contagion would have on sexuals by spore removal from the exposed
individuals. When social immunity was prevented and queens could contract spores
from their mating partner, very low dosages led to negative consequences: their
lifespan was reduced and they produced fewer offspring with poor immunocompetence
compared to healthy queens. Interestingly, cohabitation with a late-stage infected
male where no spore transfer was possible had a positive effect on offspring immunity
– male offspring of mothers that apparently perceived an infected partner in their
vicinity reacted more sensitively to fungal challenge than male offspring without
paternal pathogen history."
acknowledged_ssus:
- _id: LifeSc
alternative_title:
- ISTA Thesis
article_processing_charge: No
author:
- first_name: Sina
full_name: Metzler, Sina
id: 48204546-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Metzler
orcid: 0000-0002-9547-2494
citation:
ama: Metzler S. Pathogen-mediated sexual selection and immunization in ant colonies.
2022. doi:10.15479/AT:ISTA:10727
apa: Metzler, S. (2022). Pathogen-mediated sexual selection and immunization
in ant colonies. Institute of Science and Technology Austria. https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:10727
chicago: Metzler, Sina. “Pathogen-Mediated Sexual Selection and Immunization in
Ant Colonies.” Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2022. https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:10727.
ieee: S. Metzler, “Pathogen-mediated sexual selection and immunization in ant colonies,”
Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2022.
ista: Metzler S. 2022. Pathogen-mediated sexual selection and immunization in ant
colonies. Institute of Science and Technology Austria.
mla: Metzler, Sina. Pathogen-Mediated Sexual Selection and Immunization in Ant
Colonies. Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2022, doi:10.15479/AT:ISTA:10727.
short: S. Metzler, Pathogen-Mediated Sexual Selection and Immunization in Ant Colonies,
Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2022.
date_created: 2022-02-04T15:45:12Z
date_published: 2022-02-07T00:00:00Z
date_updated: 2023-09-07T13:43:23Z
day: '07'
ddc:
- '570'
degree_awarded: PhD
department:
- _id: GradSch
- _id: SyCr
doi: 10.15479/AT:ISTA:10727
ec_funded: 1
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date_created: 2022-02-04T15:36:12Z
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creator: smetzler
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file_date_updated: 2023-02-04T23:30:03Z
has_accepted_license: '1'
language:
- iso: eng
month: '02'
oa: 1
oa_version: Published Version
project:
- _id: 2649B4DE-B435-11E9-9278-68D0E5697425
call_identifier: H2020
grant_number: '771402'
name: Epidemics in ant societies on a chip
publication_identifier:
issn:
- 2663-337X
publication_status: published
publisher: Institute of Science and Technology Austria
status: public
supervisor:
- first_name: Sylvia
full_name: Cremer, Sylvia
id: 2F64EC8C-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87
last_name: Cremer
orcid: 0000-0002-2193-3868
title: Pathogen-mediated sexual selection and immunization in ant colonies
type: dissertation
user_id: c635000d-4b10-11ee-a964-aac5a93f6ac1
year: '2022'
...
---
_id: '9101'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: 'Behavioral predispositions are innate tendencies of animals to behave in
a given way without the input of learning. They increase survival chances and,
due to environmental and ecological challenges, may vary substantially even between
closely related taxa. These differences are likely to be especially pronounced
in long-lived species like crocodilians. This order is particularly relevant for
comparative cognition due to its phylogenetic proximity to birds. Here we compared
early life behavioral predispositions in two Alligatoridae species. We exposed
American alligator and spectacled caiman hatchlings to three different novel situations:
a novel object, a novel environment that was open and a novel environment with
a shelter. This was then repeated a week later. During exposure to the novel environments,
alligators moved around more and explored a larger range of the arena than the
caimans. When exposed to the novel object, the alligators reduced the mean distance
to the novel object in the second phase, while the caimans further increased it,
indicating diametrically opposite ontogenetic development in behavioral predispositions.
Although all crocodilian hatchlings face comparable challenges, e.g., high predation
pressure, the effectiveness of parental protection might explain the observed
pattern. American alligators are apex predators capable of protecting their offspring
against most dangers, whereas adult spectacled caimans are frequently predated
themselves. Their distancing behavior might be related to increased predator avoidance
and also explain the success of invasive spectacled caimans in the natural habitats
of other crocodilians.'
acknowledgement: We thank Jamie Gilks and Terry Miles for their support at Crocodiles
of the World. We are grateful to the Department of Cognitive Biology, University
of Vienna for provision of working space and hardware. Finally, we would like to
thank Cliodhna Quigley, Rachael Harrison and Urs A. Reber for discussion. Open Access
funding provided by Lund University. This project was funded by the Marietta Blau
grant (BMFWF) to S. A. R.
article_processing_charge: No
article_type: original
author:
- first_name: Stephan A.
full_name: Reber, Stephan A.
last_name: Reber
- first_name: Jinook
full_name: Oh, Jinook
id: 403169A4-080F-11EA-9993-BF3F3DDC885E
last_name: Oh
orcid: 0000-0001-7425-2372
- first_name: Judith
full_name: Janisch, Judith
last_name: Janisch
- first_name: Colin
full_name: Stevenson, Colin
last_name: Stevenson
- first_name: Shaun
full_name: Foggett, Shaun
last_name: Foggett
- first_name: Anna
full_name: Wilkinson, Anna
last_name: Wilkinson
citation:
ama: Reber SA, Oh J, Janisch J, Stevenson C, Foggett S, Wilkinson A. Early life
differences in behavioral predispositions in two Alligatoridae species. Animal
Cognition. 2021;24(4):753-764. doi:10.1007/s10071-020-01461-5
apa: Reber, S. A., Oh, J., Janisch, J., Stevenson, C., Foggett, S., & Wilkinson,
A. (2021). Early life differences in behavioral predispositions in two Alligatoridae
species. Animal Cognition. Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01461-5
chicago: Reber, Stephan A., Jinook Oh, Judith Janisch, Colin Stevenson, Shaun Foggett,
and Anna Wilkinson. “Early Life Differences in Behavioral Predispositions in Two
Alligatoridae Species.” Animal Cognition. Springer Nature, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01461-5.
ieee: S. A. Reber, J. Oh, J. Janisch, C. Stevenson, S. Foggett, and A. Wilkinson,
“Early life differences in behavioral predispositions in two Alligatoridae species,”
Animal Cognition, vol. 24, no. 4. Springer Nature, pp. 753–764, 2021.
ista: Reber SA, Oh J, Janisch J, Stevenson C, Foggett S, Wilkinson A. 2021. Early
life differences in behavioral predispositions in two Alligatoridae species. Animal
Cognition. 24(4), 753–764.
mla: Reber, Stephan A., et al. “Early Life Differences in Behavioral Predispositions
in Two Alligatoridae Species.” Animal Cognition, vol. 24, no. 4, Springer
Nature, 2021, pp. 753–64, doi:10.1007/s10071-020-01461-5.
short: S.A. Reber, J. Oh, J. Janisch, C. Stevenson, S. Foggett, A. Wilkinson, Animal
Cognition 24 (2021) 753–764.
date_created: 2021-02-07T23:01:13Z
date_published: 2021-07-01T00:00:00Z
date_updated: 2023-08-07T13:41:08Z
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doi: 10.1007/s10071-020-01461-5
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title: Early life differences in behavioral predispositions in two Alligatoridae species
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